Medieval India — (A) The Cholas

Inscriptions of the Cholas are in which forms?

1. Stone inscriptions
2. Copper-plate grants
3. Inscriptions on temple walls and pillars
4. All of the above

Answer

All of the above

Reason — The inscriptions of the Cholas are found in all the three forms i.e., copper-plate grants, stone inscriptions and inscriptions made on the walls and pillars of temples.

What are the chief features of Chola temples?

1. Audience halls
2. Images of deities
3. Large vimanas and courtyards
4. All of the above

Answer

All of the above

Reason — The chief features of Chola temples include their spacious courtyards and massive vimanas or towers, the audience hall (mandapa) where people gathered for prayers, and the images of deities kept in the main shrine.

Refer to the picture given on the right. It is the Vimana of the Brihadeshwara Temple. What is the temple's main shrine called?

1. Gopuram
2. Garbhagriha
3. Lingam
4. Mandapa

Answer

Garbhagriha

Reason — The main shrine of a Chola temple, where the images of gods and goddesses were kept, was known as the garbhagriha.

What information do the inscriptions provide about the Cholas?

1. Chola administration
2. Public registrations
3. Taxation
4. All of the above

Answer

All of the above

Reason — The inscriptions provide information about Chola administration, public registrations such as records of sales and mortgages of village lands, as well as taxation and land revenue.

Which of the following represents the timeline for the reign of famous Chola rulers?

1. Parantaka I - Vijayalaya - Rajaraja I
2. Rajaraja I - Parantaka I - Rajendra Chola
3. Vijayalaya - Parantaka I - Rajaraja I
4. Rajaraja II - Parantaka I - Vijayalaya

Answer

Vijayalaya - Parantaka I - Rajaraja I

Reason — In chronological order, Vijayalaya established Chola rule first, followed by Parantaka I, and later by Rajaraja I.

Which of the following territories did NOT form a part of the Chola kingdom?

1. Malaysia
2. Mysore
3. Sri Lanka
4. Odisha

Answer

Malaysia

Reason — The Cholas held territories including Mysore, Sri Lanka and areas up to Odisha, but Malaysia never formed a part of the Chola kingdom.

Rajendra Chola adopted the title Gangaikonda to commemorate which victory?

1. Odisha
2. Bengal
3. Sri Lanka
4. Mysore

Answer

Bengal

Reason — Rajendra Chola adopted the title Gangaikonda to commemorate his victory over Mahipala, the king of Bengal, whom the Chola army defeated after marching up to the Ganga river.

The Chola empire was divided into ............... and further into ............... and ............... .

1. Mandalams, ur and sabha
2. Mandalams, Valanadu and nadu
3. Sabha, nagarams
4. Sabha, ur and nagarams

Answer

Mandalams, Valanadu and nadu

Reason — The Chola empire was divided into mandalams or provinces, which were further divided into valanadu and nadu.

Under whose rule did the Cholas become the supreme power in Southern India?

1. Parantaka I
2. Parantaka II
3. Rajaraja I
4. Rajendra Chola

Answer

Rajaraja I

Reason — It was under the rule of Rajaraja I that the Cholas became the supreme power in Southern India. He attacked the Pandyas, Cheras and parts of Mysore and greatly extended Chola dominance.

Which of the following pairs is incorrect?

1. Ur : all classes
2. Sabha : Brahmins
3. Nagaram : merchants
4. Ur : landless

Answer

Ur : landless

Reason — The ur was the common assembly of villages where land was held by all classes of people, and not the landless.

Which of the following did not contribute to the revenue?

1. Overseas trade
2. Taxes on land
3. Trade-tax
4. Taxes on produce

Answer

Overseas trade

Reason — The revenue of the Chola kingdom came from taxes on land, taxes on the produce of the land, and tax on trade. Overseas trade did not contribute to the revenue.

What is the place, where the main deity is installed in a temple called?

1. Vimana
2. Garbhagriha
3. Mandapa
4. Kalasha

Answer

Garbhagriha

Reason — The garbhagriha is the sanctum at the heart of the temple where the main deity is installed.

The Chola bronze sculptures were mainly made using which technique?

1. Fresco technique
2. Mapping technique
3. Lost-wax technique
4. Drafting technique

Answer

Lost-wax technique

Reason — The Chola bronze sculptures were created using the lost-wax technique, which allowed great flexibility and delicate detailing.

The famous Chola bronze image Nataraja, depicts Shiva as which of the following?

1. Universal dancer
2. Destroyer of the world
3. Creator of the world
4. Cosmic dancer

Answer

Cosmic dancer

Reason — The most celebrated Chola bronze image, Nataraja, depicts Shiva as the cosmic dancer, symbolising the rhythm of creation and destruction.

Which painting technique was used in Chola murals?

1. Oil painting
2. Tempera
3. Fresco
4. Water colour

Answer

Fresco

Reason — The Chola murals were painted on lime-plastered surfaces using the fresco technique.

(A) The southern part of the Indian peninsula was home to three powerful kingdoms, namely, the Cheras, the Pandyas and the Cholas.

(R) These kingdoms were located north of the Krishna river.

1. (R) contradicts (A)
2. (R) is the reason for (A)
3. (A) is true but (R) is false.
4. (A) and (R) are independent of each other.

Answer

(A) is true but (R) is false.

Explanation — These kingdoms were located south of the Krishna river.

(A) The Brihadeshwara temple is the first example of having a portrait of a ruler, i.e., Rajaraja Chola.

(R) It has been declared as a World Heritage site by UNESCO.

1. (R) contradicts (A)
2. (R) is the reason for (A)
3. (A) is true but (R) is false.
4. (A) and (R) are independent of each other.

Answer

(A) and (R) are independent of each other.

Explanation — The Brihadeshwara Temple, also known as Rajarajeswaram Temple, is indeed the first known instance of a royal portrait in a temple. It has a portrait of Rajaraja Chola. The temple has been declared as a World Heritage site by UNESCO.

(A) Chola ruler Rajaraja I took out a naval expedition and attacked both Sri Lanka and the Maldives.

(R) Rajaraja I established Chola rule during the middle of ninth century.

1. (R) contradicts (A)
2. (R) is the reason for (A)
3. (A) is true but (R) is false.
4. (A) and (R) are independent of each other.

Answer

(A) is true but (R) is false.

Explanation — Vijayalaya established Chola rule during the middle of ninth century in Tamil land, with Thanjavur as capital.

(A) Under Rajendra Chola’s command, the Chola army defeated Mahipala, the king of Bengal.

(R) To commemorate his victory, Rajendra Chola adopted the title Gangaikonda and built his new capital, called Gangaikonda-Cholapuram.

1. (R) contradicts (A)
2. (A) is the reason for (R)
3. (A) is true but (R) is false.
4. (A) and (R) are independent of each other.

Answer

(A) is the reason for (R)

Explanation — The Chola army defeated Mahipala, the king of Bengal. To commemorate this victory, Rajendra Chola adopted the title Gangaikonda and built his new capital, called Gangaikonda-Cholapuram.

(A) On the complaint of Indian merchants, Rajendra Chola sent out a huge army and defeated Shrivijaya, the ruler of present day Indonesia.

(R) Shrivijaya was creating problems for Indian merchants who had been trading with various parts of South-East Asia and Southern China.

1. (R) contradicts (A)
2. (R) is the reason for (A)
3. (A) is true but (R) is false.
4. (A) and (R) are independent of each other.

Answer

(R) is the reason for (A)

Explanation — Shrivijaya was defeated by Rajendra Chola. As a result, the trade continued with South-East Asia and South China, enriching the Chola kingdom.

(A) The Cholas established local self-government in villages.

(R) The 'ur' was the local assembly, with all the villagers as members.

1. (R) contradicts (A)
2. (R) is the reason for (A)
3. (A) is true but (R) is false
4. (A) and (R) are independent of each other

Answer

(R) is the reason for (A)

Explanation — The Cholas established a powerful system of local self-government by empowering village assemblies like the ur, where local residents directly managed and decided village administration matters.

(A) The temples were centres of education in the Chola kingdom.

(R) The students learnt their lessons in two languages, i.e., Hindi and Sanskrit.

1. (R) contradicts (A)
2. (R) is the reason for (A)
3. (A) is true but (R) is false.
4. (A) and (R) are independent of each other.

Answer

(A) is true but (R) is false.

Explanation — The students learnt their lessons in two languages, i.e., Tamil and Sanskrit.

State two significant features of inscriptions for providing information about the Cholas.

Answer

Two significant features of inscriptions for providing information about the Cholas are:

1. These inscriptions tell us about the Chola administration. For example, the Uttaramerur inscription gives information on the village administration, taxation and land revenue.
2. Some inscriptions have royal orders on taxation and land revenue, resolutions of village assemblies, judgements delivered against persons guilty of theft, murder and other crimes.

Who established the rule of the Cholas? Name the capital of his empire.

Answer

Chola ruler Vijayalaya established the rule of the Cholas.

The capital of his empire was Thanjavur.

Why did Rajaraja undertake a naval expedition against Ceylon (Sri Lanka) and the Maldives?

Answer

The Indian Ocean trade in textiles, spices, and gemstones brought immense wealth from Arab merchants to the coasts of Kerala, Sri Lanka, and the Maldives. Recognizing the vital importance of controlling these maritime trade routes, the Chola king Rajaraja launched a powerful naval expedition to assert his dominance. He successfully attacked both the Maldives and Sri Lanka, ultimately conquering the northern half of Sri Lanka.

Name any two great rulers of the Chola dynasty.

Answer

Two great rulers of the Chola dynasty were:

1. Rajaraja I
2. Rajendra Chola

Give any two achievements of Rajendra Chola.

Answer

Two achievements of Rajendra Chola were:

1. He invaded and annexed the whole island of Sri Lanka. Sri Lanka was not able to free herself from the Chola control for another 50 years.
2. His army defeated Mahipala, king of Bengal. He built a new capital called Gangaikonda-cholapuram which he adorned with beautiful temples and magnificent palaces.

Name the new capital built by Rajendra Chola. In which present-day state is it situated?

Answer

The new capital built by Rajendra Chola was Gangaikonda-cholapuram. It is situated in Tamil Nadu.

Why did the cholas build a strong naval fleet?

Answer

The Cholas built a powerful navy to conquer Sri Lanka and the Maldives to dominate maritime trade. When the Shrivijaya kingdom began disrupting Indian trade routes through the Straits of Malacca, merchants appealed to Rajendra Chola for assistance. He deployed a massive naval force, defeated the Shrivijaya king, and successfully secured the trade routes connecting India to Southeast Asia and Southern China.

What made the Chola administration strong and effective?

Answer

The Chola administration was strong and effective because of following reasons:

1. The King was the pivot of administration and all the authority vested in his hands.
2. The King often went on tours in order to keep a check on the administration.
3. The Cholas were good administrators. The villages were not ruled by any government official but they were self governed by the villagers themselves. The villages had three types of assemblies, namely, the Ur, the Sabha and the Nagaram.

Name the two languages promoted by the Cholas.

Answer

The two languages promoted by the Cholas were:

1. Sanskrit
2. Tamil

Name any two features of temples built by the Cholas.

Answer

Two features of temples built by the Cholas were:

1. Massive Vimanas or towers.
2. Spacious courtyards.

Which is the best example of Chola temples? Give one reason.

Answer

The Brihadeshwara (or Rajarajeshwar) Temple, built by Rajaraja I and dedicated to Lord Shiva, is the finest specimen of Chola architecture and a UNESCO World Heritage Site. This splendid monument features a massive 66-meter vimana (tower) crowned by an 80-ton single-stone dome. Famous for its exquisite sculptures and decorative moldings, it stands as the most beautiful example of Tamil temple architecture.

What is known as the 'gopuram'? Name another feature of temples built during the Chola Period.

Answer

The gateway of the temple is known as 'gopuram'.
The another feature of temples built during the Chola Period was massive towers known as 'vimanas' and spacious courtyards.

With reference to the sources of information about the Cholas, briefly answer the following:

(a) List the forms of Chola inscriptions.

(b) What was the special feature of the inscriptions? Who conceptualised the idea? Name one temple built by him.

(c) Mention the significance of Brihadeshwara Temple.

Answer

(a) The forms of chola inscriptions are:

1. Copper-plates grants.
2. Stone inscriptions.
3. Inscription made on the walls and pillars of the temples.

(b) The special feature of the inscriptions was that it mentioned the main achievements of the the king and his reign.

The idea was conceptualised by Rajaraja I.

The temple built by Rajaraja I was Brihadeshwara Temple.

(c) Built by Rajaraja I at Thanjavur, the Brihadeshwara (or Rajarajeshwara) Temple is a magnificent Shiva temple that stands as a premier example of Dravidian architecture. This historic monument features a 66-meter vimana crowned by an 80-ton monolithic stone dome, and it houses a gigantic 8.87-meter-high Shiva Lingam. Complemented by a Nandi Pavilion, a pillared portico, and a large assembly hall, the temple is highly significant for its extraordinary architectural beauty and historical importance.

With reference to the Chola period explain the following:

(a) Taxes imposed by the Cholas.

(b) Administration of the Kingdom.

(c) The three types of village assemblies.

Answer

(a) Taxes imposed by Cholas were taxes on land, taxes on the produce of the land and taxes on trade. The taxes on land were collected by the officials from the village councils. Part of revenue was kept for the king. The rest was used on the public works, on salaries of officials, on paying for the upkeep of the army and on the building of temples.

(b) The Cholas maintained a highly organized administration where absolute authority rested with the king, who was advised by a council of ministers. To ensure efficiency, power was decentralized across a structured hierarchy. The empire was divided into provinces (mandalams) governed by royal princes, which were further subdivided into Valanadus and Nadus. Crucially, villages enjoyed autonomous self-governance free from official interference, leaving the central government to focus on external defense, internal law and order, public prosperity, and cultural growth.

(c) The Chola villages featured three distinct, self-governing assemblies that united the community and provided popular strength:

1. The Ur - A general assembly for all land-owning classes.
2. The Sabha - An exclusive assembly for Brahmin landowners
3. The Nagaram - An assembly for dominant merchants and traders.

Land-owning villagers were elected by vote to these councils to discuss local life and work. Specialized committees managed all essential village affairs, including tax collection, dispute settlements, and water allocation.

With reference to the Chola Administration, write short notes on:

(a) The King, the chief administrator.

(b) Local self-government.

(c) Temples as the centre of social activity.

Answer

(a) The king was the most important person in Chola administration. He was the pivot of administration and all the authority was vested in him. The king often went on tours in order to keep check on the administration. He had a council of ministers to advise him.

(b) The Cholas pioneered a system of autonomous village self-government run entirely by the locals rather than government officials. Administration was handled by three distinct assemblies i.e., the Ur (a general assembly for all land-owning classes), the Sabha (an exclusive assembly for Brahmin landowners), and the Nagaram (an assembly for merchants and traders). Land-owning villagers were elected by vote to these councils to manage local affairs and unify the community. Specialized committees took charge of essential daily duties, including tax collection, dispute resolution, and water allocation.

(c) Beyond being places of worship, Chola temples served as vital social hubs where communities gathered together. They were the largest employers after the state, providing a livelihood to a vast workforce for whom they provided food, clothing, housing, healthcare, and education. Furthermore, the temples functioned as the primary educational institutions of the kingdom, with priests serving as local teachers and schools housed directly within the temple courtyards.

With reference to the Chola Art, answer the following questions:

(a) Why did art and architecture prosper under the Chola rulers?

(b) Describe any three features of Chola temple architecture.

(c) Write a short note on the main features of the Nataraja image of Shiva.

Answer

(a) Art and architecture prospered under the Chola rulers because of the following reasons:

1. The political stability, economic prosperity and strong administrative system that prevailed during the Chola period made this remarkable achievement possible.
2. Royal patronage played a major role, with rulers such as Rajaraja Chola I and Rajendra Chola I building grand stone temples, bronze images, murals and inscriptions.
3. Art during the Chola period was closely intertwined with religion, especially Shaivism. Temples were not merely places of worship but functioned as centres of social, cultural and economic life, which further encouraged artistic activity.

(b) Three features of Chola temple architecture are:

1. Garbhagriha — At the heart of the temple lies the garbhagriha or sanctum, where the main deity is installed.
2. Vimana — Directly above the sanctum rises the vimana, a tall pyramidal tower that is the most striking feature of Chola temples. It is crowned by the shikhara, a dome-like structure, and finally topped with a kalasha, the symbolic finial.
3. Mandapa — In front of the sanctum is the ardha-mandapa, which leads to the spacious mandapa, a pillared hall used for rituals, assemblies and temple ceremonies. Surrounding the sanctum is the prakara, an enclosed corridor meant for circumambulation.

(c) The most celebrated Chola bronze image is the Nataraja, depicting Shiva as the cosmic dancer, created using the lost-wax technique. Its main features are:

1. In this form, Shiva holds a damru in one hand, symbolising the rhythm of creation, while agni or fire in another hand represents destruction.
2. One hand is shown in the abhaya mudra, assuring protection to devotees.
3. The raised foot signifies liberation or moksha, while the other foot crushes Apasmara, the dwarf symbolising ignorance.
4. Surrounding the figure is the prabhamandala, a circle of flames representing cosmic energy.

Study the given picture and answer the following questions:

(a) Name the temple given in the picture. Who built this temple? Where is it located?

(b) To which deity is the temple dedicated? Mention two special features of this temple?

(c) What were the following features of temples known as?

1. Gateway
2. Shrine
3. Audience hall
4. Towers

Answer

(a) The given temple is Brihadeshwara Temple, also known as Rajarajeshwara Temple. Chola King, Rajaraja I built this temple.It is located at Thanjavur in Tamil Nadu.

(b) The temple is dedicated to Lord Shiva.

Two special features of this temple are:

1. The massive tower or Vimana of 66 metres height and a huge dome of 7.6 metres, carved out of a single block of stone.
2. A gigantic Shiva Lingam, cut in monolithic rock about 8.87 metres high.

(c) Given features of temples were known as:

1. Gateway - Gopuram
2. Shrine - Garbhagriha
3. Audience Hall - Mandapa
4. Towers - Vimana.

What do you think would have been the reason for the Chola rulers to issue large number of inscriptions, especially on copper-plates?

Answer

The Chola King Rajaraja I pioneered the practice of prefixing his inscriptions with his reign's major achievements, a tradition followed by his successors. These inscriptions were issued on durable, widely available copper plates for the following reasons:

1. Legal and Administrative Purposes — The copper-plate inscriptions served as legal and administrative documents that recorded land grants, tax exemptions, and privileges granted by the rulers. By documenting these rights, they established social and political order and helped resolve local disputes and conflicts.
2. Propaganda and Legitimacy — These copper-plate inscriptions promoted the rulers' achievements and established their political legitimacy. By documenting their military conquests, charitable works, and religious endowments, the Cholas successfully projected a powerful, positive image to both their contemporary subjects and future generations.
3. Religious Purposes — The Chola rulers were great patrons of Hinduism, and many copper-plate inscriptions recorded their religious endowments to temples and Brahmins. These inscriptions helped to establish the authority of the Chola rulers as protectors and patrons of the Hindu religion.
4. Historical Record — The copper-plate inscriptions served as a historical record of the Chola dynasty, documenting its genealogy, chronology, and major events. These inscriptions helped to preserve the memory of the Chola rulers and their achievements, as well as to provide valuable information to future generations of scholars and historians.

The temples in the Chola Kingdom were the centre of social activity, besides being a place of worship. How did the temples gain this position of eminence?

Answer

The multifaceted roles elevated the Chola temple from a simple place of worship into the ultimate center of social and civic life. These were -

1. Immense Wealth & Patronage - Backed by royal Chola patronage, the temples possessed vast economic resources in the form of extensive land holdings and gold.
2. Major Economic Hubs - They functioned as the largest employers after the state, providing a livelihood and essential support (food, clothing, housing) to a massive workforce.
3. Centers of Education - Temples served as the primary schools of the era, where local priests taught subjects like Sanskrit and Tamil directly in the temple courtyards.
4. Promoters of Culture & Art - They actively sponsored cultural activities, including music, dance, and drama, which helped preserve the arts and unite the community.
5. Social Welfare Providers - They operated essential welfare services, managing hospitals, orphanages, and shelters for the poor and homeless.
6. Judicial Centers - The temples acted as local administrative spaces where community disputes and conflicts were formally resolved.

Recently Ponniyin Selvan (1 and 2) — movies based on a fictional account of a Chola kingdom were released. They rekindled interest in the Chola dynasty. How authentic do you think it was with respect to the life of rulers and the ruled? If you get a chance to change the script, which changes would you like to introduce, based on the information given in history books?

Answer

Based on Kalki Krishnamurthy's 1955 novel, the movie presents a fictionalized yet historically grounded account of the glorious Chola kingdom, focusing on Arulmozhi Varman's journey to becoming Rajaraja I. While it incorporates exaggerated drama, romanticized elements, and fictional characters for cinematic storytelling rather than a 100% authentic depiction, the core plot is heavily backed by historical evidence meticulously researched and originally serialized by the Kalki magazine.

If I get a chance to change the script, few changes that I would like to introduce are:

1. More emphasis on administrative brilliance: The Chola kings developed a well-organized administrative system with village self-government. This aspect could be shown in greater depth to highlight how advanced their governance was for that time.

2. Focus on temple-building as cultural centers: The Brihadeshwara Temple built by Raja Raja Chola I was not just a religious site but a center for art, education, and culture. This could be used to reflect how deeply the Cholas promoted Shaivism and Tamil culture.

3. Expansion of naval expeditions: Rajendra Chola’s naval conquest to Southeast Asia (like Srivijaya) is a major historical achievement. This aspect was not explored in the film but could be added to show Chola influence beyond India.

4. Representation of social structure: The life of common people, artisans, traders, and women in the Chola period, as described in historical sources, could be given more space to show a balanced picture of rulers and the ruled.