Many factors contributed to usher in the spirit of Renaissance, which had far-reaching consequences for the entire world. In this context, write short notes on:

(a) Invention of the printing press.

(b) Decline of Feudalism.

(c) Capture of Constantinople.

(a) Invention of the printing press — The first printing press was set up in Germany by Gutenberg in the middle of the 15th century. Later on Caxton introduced it in England. The invention of printing press in the middle of the 15th century in Europe made it possible to produce books in large numbers. The Bible and many other religious and classical books were printed and made available all over Europe. The printing press spread knowledge far and wide. Scholars found it easier to read printed books than hand-written manuscripts. In the Middle Ages, books were few and they were beyond the reach of the ordinary people. The Printing Press enabled Europe to multiply books and put them within the reach of people. Printing and distribution of books influenced people's attitude to life and brought about a new awakening in Europe.

(b) Decline of Feudalism — Feudalism was a system according to which the medieval European society was organised on the basis of land tenure. In this system, all the people, from the King down to the lowest land owners were bound together by obligation and defence. The King used to give estates to his lords (Dukes and Earls). The Lords, distributed a part of their land among the lesser lords (Barons), who provided them with military support. The Dukes and Earls owned allegiance directly to the king, whereas the Barons owed allegiance to Dukes and Earls. The Knights formed the lower category of feudal lords. The feudal lords did not cultivate their lands and gave it to the peasants for cultivation.

The society had a graded organisation in which there was hardly any chance for social mobility and progress. It was also opposed to freedom and equality of rights. Decline of Feudalism in the 13^th and 14^th centuries provided an impetus to free thinking. The peace and freedom that prevailed after the decline of feudalism favoured the growth of New Learning. It led to new developments in the spheres of art, literature, philosophy and science and contributed to the rise of Renaissance.

(c) Capture of Constantinople — Constantinople was the capital of the Eastern Roman Empire and was a centre of Greek and Roman cultures. It had valuable manuscripts of Greek and Roman writers. But Constantinople fell into hands of the Turks in 1453. Many Greek and Roman scholars were thus, forced to shift to Rome and other parts of Europe with their manuscripts. Rome then became the centre of Greek culture. These scholars were geniuses, men of liberal outlook, humanism and logical thinking. Wherever they went, they spread their new spirit and ideas. They revived the interest of people in the study of Greek philosophy, science, art and literature. The revival of the learning of Greek classics paved the way for the Renaissance.