Between 1880 and 1920, forest cover in the Indian subcontinent declined by 9.7 million hectares, from 108.6 million hectares to 98.9 million hectares. Discuss the role of the following factors in this decline:

1. Railways
2. Shipbuilding
3. Agricultural expansion
4. Commercial farming
5. Tea/Coffee plantations
6. Adivasis and other peasant users

1. Railways — Railway required wood for sleepers and also for fuel. From the 1860s, the railway network expanded rapidly. By 1890, about 25,500 km of track had been laid. In 1946, the length of the tracks had increased to over 765,000 km. As the railway tracks spread through India, a larger and larger number of trees were felled. As early as the 1850s, in the Madras Presidency alone, 35,000 trees were being cut annually for sleepers. Forests around the railway tracks fast started disappearing.

2. Shipbuilding — Shipbuilding was crucial for colonial trade and the British military. As oak forests in England depleted, teams were sent to India to explore timber resources. A huge quantity of timber was exported from India for shipbuilding needs of British navy.

3. Agricultural expansion — The growing European population increased the demand for food. Peasants extended cultivation boundaries by clearing forests. Forests were cleared to make way for agricultural expansion. Forests were also cleared for the purpose of cash crops like tea, coffee, cotton and production of timber.

4. Commercial farming — Older forests with diverse tree species were no longer considered useful. These forests were cut down and replaced with “managed” forests for specific trade purposes. Commercial farming practices involved large-scale clearing of land.

5. Tea/Coffee plantations — The colonial government gave vast forest areas to European planters at cheap rates. These areas were cleared of forests and planted with tea and coffee. Large-scale tea and coffee plantations led to further loss of forests.

6. Adivasis and other peasant users — As Adivasis lived in forests, they utilised it and maintained it as well. They didn't over exploited the forests. But after their displacement, the forests went into hands of greedy firms who over exploited it and led to their decline.