Discuss why the colonial government in India brought in the following laws. In each case, explain how the law changed the lives of pastoralists:

1. Waste Land rules
2. Forest Acts
3. Criminal Tribes Act
4. Grazing Tax

1. Waste Land rules — To colonial officials all uncultivated land appeared to be unproductive as it produced neither revenue nor agricultural produce. It was seen as ‘waste land’ that needed to be brought under cultivation. From the mid-nineteenth century, Waste Land Rules were enacted in various parts of the country. By these Rules uncultivated lands were taken over and given to select individuals. In most areas the lands taken over were actually grazing tracts used regularly by pastoralists. So expansion of cultivation inevitably meant the decline of pastures and a problem for pastoralists.

2. Forest Acts — By the mid-nineteenth century, various Forest Acts were being enacted in the different provinces. Through these Acts some forests which produced commercially valuable timber like deodar or sal were declared ‘Reserved’. No pastoralist was allowed access to these forests. It hugely impacted their livelihood. Pastoralists were now prevented from entering many forests that had earlier provided valuable forage for their cattle. As a result they lost their cattle and became poorer. These policies prioritized British economic interests over the well-being of local populations.

3. Criminal Tribes Act — The British colonial government in India brought in the Criminal Tribes Act of 1871 due to their suspicion and distrust of nomadic people, including mobile craftsmen, traders, and pastoralists. They preferred ruling over a settled population, which was easier to control and deemed peaceable and law-abiding. The Act forced these communities to live in notified village settlements, restricted their movement without a permit, and subjected them to constant police surveillance. This led to social seclusion, moral alienation, economic hardships, and a significant decrease in their income.

4. Grazing Tax — The colonial government introduced the grazing tax to increase revenue. Pastoralists had to pay tax on each animal they grazed, which was implemented in most pastoral regions by the mid-nineteenth century. The tax rates increased rapidly, and the collection system became more efficient. Cattle herders needed a pass to enter grazing areas, recording the number of cattle and the tax paid. This reduced their cattle numbers and income, making their lives difficult.